GLP-1 Receptor Agonists: More Than Just Weight Loss Drugs!

 

     You can call it Ozempic, Wegovy, or Rybelsus but these GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RA) aren’t just Hollywood’s weight loss drugs! They’re one of the most powerful medical breakthroughs in decades but reducing them to just a “weight loss drug” misses the bigger story. I can see why most individuals would think this, after all it’s the main thing being marketed. From celebrities like Serena Williams and Charles Barkley on RO commercials, to Lizzo, Oprah and Elon Musk weighing in, GLP-1RA have become synonymous with weight loss and this perception risks fueling stigma against people who rely on them for serious health conditions.

What are GLP-1 Receptor Agonists?

This diagram shows how GLP-1 works throughout the body. it helps the pancreas release insulin and glucagon, lowers the production of glucose in the liver, and helps reduce food intake and increase satiety when it acts on the brain (6).

     What exactly are GLP-1RA? Let’s break it down. Our body naturally produces a hormone, Glucagon- Like- Peptide-1 (GLP-1) at the arrival of food in the small intestine (6). A receptor is a protein that is on the inside or the surface of a cell that waits for a specific molecule to trigger an effect within the cell. These specific molecules are agonists that bind to the receptor (2). Agonists can be either natural hormones or drugs. Think of it like a house key (the natural hormone) and the drug is like a copy you made for your kids. It’s not the original but it still unlocks the door. So GLP-1RA are synthetic versions of the natural GLP-1 hormone but engineered to last much longer than natural GLP-1 like your kids keeping the door open longer.

Diabetes:  The Bigger Picture

     According to the CDC, more than 38 million Americans (about 1 in 10) have diabetes with 90-95% having type 2 (8). In type 2 diabetes, the body’s cells resist insulin and the pancreas overproduces it. This leads to more glucose being stored as fat.

This is a visual from EverydayHealth.com that illustrates the cycle of insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes.  The continuation of this cycle is what leads to weight gain (5).  GLP-1RAs help prevent this (2).

     GLP-1RA have been around for more than 20 years fighting diabetes. The first GLP- 1RA, BYETTA was approved by the FDA in April of 2005 (1). At that time, there were 18 million people living with diabetes and diabetes was the fifth leading cause of death(1). Now, diabetes is the eighth leading cause of death in the U.S (3). While many drugs are helpful in lowering blood glucose levels but they also have many side effects (9). This includes gastrointestinal discomfort, hypoglycemia, weight gain and increased risks of heart failure and bladder cancer. GLP-1RA not only treat diabetes but also reduce blood pressure, other cardiovascular complications, and albuminuria, a sign of kidney failure. GLP-1RA are being studied to treat fatty liver, dementia, and low bone density. The benefits of these GLP- 1RA don’t just stop here (9).

From Pop Culture to Real Life

     Many people, like me, weren’t aware of the existence of these GLP-1RA. I only heard of them last      year when rapper Drake was making fun of rapper Rick Ross claiming Ozempic has a side effect of jealousy during their rap beef. When I didn’t understand the line initially, I did my research and learned that Rick Ross once weighed over 400lbs and used Ozempic to lose a significant portion of that weight. I didn’t know much about these drugs at first only the surface level information about their weight loss benefits. One of my coworkers, Miranda, told me about her reasonings and all the things she has benefited from being on semaglutide (the active ingredient in Ozempic and Wegovy) compounded with Vitamin B12. When I interviewed Miranda, she said she started taking this medication because she had reached her highest weight ever and experienced fatigue, shortness of breath, and lack of endurance. She couldn’t do the things she enjoyed like playing with her nieces and nephews. Between May and September 2024 Miranda tried a caloric deficit and exercising regimen but unfortunately failed to see consistent results. It’s been a year now since starting her journey with a GLP-1RA. She has lost over 70lbs so far and now has an improved and normal BMI. She has had a positive experience so far, from improved bloodwork to improved joint pain and swelling since GLP-1s may help in decreasing inflammation. Miranda says she has also decreased her risk of chronic diseases like heart disease and diabetes.

Conclusions

     Weight loss has come a long way, and some people just can’t lose weight with diet and exercise alone. While some may simply prefer the traditional method it is ultimately a personal choice. Maybe it’s not just about lowering the number on the scale, but about the individual’s health, energy, and showing up for their family. All in all, GLP-1RA didn’t start out as weight loss drugs, this just happened to be a great side effect of them. Their broader impact on health and quality of life is what is making them some of the biggest medical breakthroughs in our time.

By Said Zakaria, a Master's of Medical Science student at the University of Kentucky

Resources

 1.         Amylin Pharma, Inc., and Eli Lilly and Company. “Amylin and Lilly Announce FDA Approval of Byetta (Exenatide).” Amylin and Lilly Investor News Releases, 28 Apr. 2005, https://investor.lilly.com/news-releases/news-release-details/amylin-and-lilly-announce- fda-approval-byettatm-exenatide.

2.         Baggio, Laurie L., and Daniel J. Drucker. “Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptors in the Brain: Controlling Food Intake and Body Weight.” Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 124, no. 10, Sept. 2014, pp. 4223–26. https://doi.org/10.1172/jci78371.

3.         Diabetes in America: Prevalence, Statistics, and Economic Impact. https://diabetes.org/about-diabetes/statistics/about-diabetes.

4.         GLP-1R and Diabetes. bpsbioscience.com/glp-1r-diabetes#ref6.

5.         Higuera, Valencia. “What Is Insulin Resistance? Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention.” EverydayHealth.com, 17 Feb. 2023, www.everydayhealth.com/type-2-diabetes/insulin-resistance-causes-symptoms- diagnosis-consequences.

6.         Muskiet, Marcel H. A., et al. “GLP-1 and the Kidney: From Physiology to Pharmacology and Outcomes in Diabetes.” Nature Reviews Nephrology, vol. 13, no. 10, Sept. 2017, pp. 605–28. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneph.2017.123.

7.         Professional, Cleveland Clinic Medical. “GLP-1 Agonists.” Cleveland Clinic, 30 June 2025, https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/13901-glp-1-agonists.

8.         “Type 2 Diabetes.” Diabetes, 15 May 2024, www.cdc.gov/diabetes/about/about-type-2- diabetes.html.

9.         View of the Origins of Type 2 Diabetes Medications | British Journal of Diabetes. https://bjd-abcd.com/index.php/bjd/article/view/1003/1239?utm_

Does Being Cold Really Give You a Cold?

             As the weather gets colder there is always a phrase you can count on hearing “Put on a coat or you'll catch a cold.” It's a belief that parents and grandparents alike seem to pass on to the next generation. But have you ever wondered if there is any truth to this “old wives tale” that not wearing a coat in the cold really increases your chances of catching a cold? This belief comes from the idea that cold weather can directly cause a virus when in reality that’s not true. According to the CDC one of the most common types of viruses are rhinoviruses. Rhinoviruses are a respiratory virus that spreads through droplets of an infected person when they cough or sneeze. The cold and dry air can often lead to more frequent coughing and sneezing, which increases the frequency of potential viral spread instances. The idea that exposure to cold weather and environments (especially without a coat) can lead to a viral infection is misleading. However, cold weather may indirectly increase the likelihood of catching a “cold” due to increased sinus activity in inclement weather, but the virus must be present first.

 The Cold Weakens our Defenses

The cold weather can actually play a significant role in how our bodies react when they come in contact with a virus. When our bodies get cold their ability to fight off a virus is drastically decreased. According to one study by Shepard et al (1998), inclement weather plays a key role in the “suppression of several cellular and humoral components of the immune response, including a decrease of lymphocyte proliferation.” These lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that play an important part in our immune system. They are responsible for identifying foreign invaders (like viruses) and using the body's immune system in an attempt to destroy them. Shepard goes on to say that,”Lymphocytes are an important unit in the immune response cascade that if not present result in a decrease in natural killer cell count. These Natural Killer cells are a specific type of lymphocyte that act as one of our first lines of defense. They provide rapid identification and destruction of infected viral cells without prior exposure needed. Without natural killer cells it would be much harder for our bodies to react to pathogens because our bodies' other immune responses such as T and B cells, take longer to respond.

             Another thing to keep in mind is that certain demographics will be affected more by the cold than others. For example, children have a harder time regulating their body temperature and thus are much more likely to be affected. They are also more likely to have compromised or weakened immune systems that make viral exposure more serious. Children, unlike most adults, don't have fully developed immune systems yet and lack vital components of the adaptive immunity such as “B” and “T” cell abundance. According to a study conducted by Semmes et al (2021), children under 6 only contain 60-75% of certain types of B cell activity (Figure 1). B cells are of vital importance as they produce antibodies that are  used to fight off viral pathogens.

Figure 1.  B and T cell availability in children under 6 and adults of 18 years of age.  This data was gathered research conducted by Semmes et al., 2021.

Cold to Action

The most important thing when the weather gets cold, regardless of if you're putting a jacket on or not, is to keep yourself out of harm's way during this year's cold and flu season. Make sure to wash your hands frequently to keep viruses and other unwanted bacteria away. It's also a good idea to stay home if you think you're getting sick. This will prevent the spread to those more susceptible demographics that may have a harder time fighting off illness.

 

Staying Warm in the Cold

Some may think that it's the cold weather that gives you a virus due to the cold-like symptoms that commonly arise during the winter months, such as a runny nose and sore throat. These symptoms are often mistaken for a cold/virus, but in reality they are just a result of your body reacting to the dry/cold air. The increased exposure to viruses from coughing and sneezing of infected individuals, along with your weakened immune system from the cold is the real culprit. Putting on your coat won't necessarily prevent you from catching a cold/virus. But it will help your body stay warm and reduce the conditions that make you more susceptible to illness.So next time you run outside give your body a fighting chance by taking a coat with you.

By Adam Singer, a Master's of Medical Science student at the University of Kentucky

References

 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024, April 24). About Rhinoviruses. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/rhinoviruses/about/

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024b, October 15). About common cold. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

https://www.cdc.gov/common-cold/about/index.html#cdc_disease_basics_causes_risk_s pread-causes-and-spread

Shephard RJ, Shek PN. Cold exposure and immune function. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1998 Sep;76(9):828-36. doi: 10.1139/cjpp-76-9-828. PMID: 10066131

 

Semmes EC, Chen JL, Goswami R, Burt TD, Permar SR, Fouda GG. Understanding Early-Life Adaptive Immunity to Guide Interventions for Pediatric Health. Front Immunol. 2021 Jan 21;11:595297. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.595297. PMID: 33552052; PMCID: PMC7858666.

Saving Money Without Sacrificing Quality: The Reality of Generic Drugs

 The Great Generic Dilemma

Have you ever stood at the pharmacy counter, wondering if the cheaper, generic version of your medication would work as well as the brand-name option? You’re not alone in this uncertainty. Many people harbor doubts about generics, fearing that the reduced cost translates to compromised quality or effectiveness. This widespread skepticism is more than just a personal dilemma; it’s a myth that costs patients and the healthcare system billions of dollars each year.

It’s easy to see how this belief took root. Brand-name drugs dominate the advertising landscape, featuring sleek packaging and years of marketing that promote their superiority. In our consumer-driven culture, we often equate a higher price with better quality, whether we’re shopping for cars, electronics, or even medications. But when it comes to your health, price is not always a reliable indicator of effectiveness.

 A generic drug is designed to be identical to its brand-name counterpart in dosage form, safety, strength, route of administration, quality, performance characteristics, and intended use. This means that generics are not only affordable but also bioequivalent, working just as effectively and providing the same clinical benefits as the more expensive alternatives.1 Yet, despite this clarity, misinformation continues to sway patient decisions, leading many to choose brand-name drugs even when insurance coverage is limited, leaving them with hefty out-of-pocket expenses. What many don’t realize is that by clinging to this myth, they are not only draining their wallets but also missing out on cost-effective and equally reliable treatment options.

 The Truth About Generics: Science Speaks for Itself

Despite robust evidence supporting the effectiveness of generic medications, many patients remain hesitant. A common concern revolves around the inactive ingredients— such as fillers, dyes, or preservatives—that differ between generics and their brand-name counterparts. These variations can result in noticeable differences in appearance, taste, or even absorption, leading to worries that these changes might compromise the medication’s performance or cause unexpected side effects. Additionally, some individuals report feeling that generics are less potent or trigger more side effects than the branded versions. This perception often stems from the psychological impact of taking a pill that looks different or from isolated experiences with specific generics that contain varying inactive ingredients.

While these concerns are understandable, it's important to note that differences in inactive ingredients typically do not affect the safety, efficacy or overall therapeutic outcome for the vase majority of patients.  The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) mandates that generic medications demonstrate "bioequivalence" to their brand-name equivalents. This means they must deliver the same amount of active ingredient into a patient’s bloodstream in the same time frame as the original brand-name drug. In a comprehensive review of bioequivalence data from 2,070 single-dose clinical pharmacokinetic trials of approved orally administered generics conducted over 12 years (1996–2007), the FDA found no significant differences between branded and generic drugs.2

Moreover, a meta-analysis of 47 studies—including 38 randomized controlled trials— spanning nine different classes of cardiovascular drugs (such as α-blockers, angiotensin- converting enzyme inhibitors, antiplatelet agents, β-blockers, calcium channel blockers, diuretics, and statins) revealed no evidence of superiority for original branded medications compared to their generic substitutes.3 For the vast majority of patients, generics perform just as effectively as brand-name drugs, with no significant differences in side effects or treatment success. In rare instances where a patient does react to an inactive ingredient, healthcare providers can readily identify an alternative generic or revert to the brand-name option if necessary. However, such cases are exceptions rather than the norm and should not deter patients from opting for a more cost-effective and safe choice.

 Call to Action: Become a Generic Advocate

So, the next time you find yourself at that pharmacy counter, remember you don’t have to spend more to get the same benefits! Generic medications are not just effective and safe; they are your ticket to affordable healthcare without sacrificing quality. Talk to your healthcare provider about generic options. Ask the questions that matter, voice your concerns, and discover how generics can fit into your treatment plan. Let’s embrace the truth, share the knowledge, and take charge of our health, one generic pill at a time!

By Taylor Carrico, a Master's of Medical Science student at the University of Kentucky

 

 References

1.      Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. Generic Drugs: Questions & Answers. U.S. Food   and    Drug      Administration.    Accessed October  20,  2024. 

https://www.fda.gov/drugs/frequently-asked-questions-popular-topics/generic- drugs-questions-answers#1.

2.      Davit BM, Nwakama PE, Buehler GJ, et al. Comparing generic and innovator drugs: a review of 12 years of bioequivalence data from the United States Food and Drug Administration. Ann Pharmacother. 2009;43:1583–1597.

3.      Kesselheim AS, Misono AS, Lee JL, et al. Clinical equivalence of generic and brand- name drugs used in cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2008;300:2514–2526.

Is Amphetamine Truly the Solution For Managing Rambunctious Children?

 

https://www.additudemag.com/misunderstood-adhd-in-the-classroom/

Imagine yourself as a parent, receiving a call from school because your child keeps interrupting class and will not sit still. You think to yourself, “But aren’t kids always bursting with energy?” The teacher urges you to put your child on medication to calm him or her down. You are not sure, but you decide to accept. Everything will go back to normal with a handful of pills, no? Or is the problem something deeper?

All About ADHD

Attention Deficient Hyperactive Disorder, shortened to ADHD, is a neurodevelopmental disorder that impairs the brain’s executive functions. Organization, planning, time management, and paying attention becomes extremely difficult for those with ADHD. You may know a friend or parent with an ADHD kid. ADHD is a relatively common disorder, affecting 11% of children and 5% of adults (1). Even I have ADHD and can relate to all these symptoms. I best described my struggles to a friend as, “Having a hundred computer tabs open and rattling around in your head but you can’t close any of them”. Not only does the condition impact your personal or social life, it can detrimentally affect your work or schooling. Being forced to sit still in class while a teacher is lecturing about some uninteresting topic is agony. Back in the early 20^th century, unruly students would be kicked out of class or smacked with rulers, but there is a modern solution: Medication.

Prescription Problems

There are many different types of ADHD medication. Some act instantly and allow for powering through a morning test and some are slow acting and facilitate survival of the school day. The most commonly used drug are stimulants which increase the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine in the central nervous system. Because dopamine is in short supply in those with ADHD, they struggle with mood and concentration (6). In the United States, 8.5% of children, about 1 in 12 children, are on some form of medication to treat ADHD (1). And with the whirlwind of COVID causing kids to be cooped indoors, ADHD prescriptions are at an all-time high (7). These medications are not without their problems. As some medications use amphetamines, they are tightly regulated, punishing the absentminded for forgetting their refills. Medications are also expensive and difficult to force children to take. Finding the correct type of prescription is an added challenge. Not enough dosage and the children are bouncing off the walls, too much dosage and the children are mindless drones. It is a nightmare for everyone involved. Maybe ADHD is not the fault of the children, but of the school system.

https://www.additudemag.com/slideshows/how-can-we-improve-education-for-students-with-adhd/

Schooling Situation

Public or private, children are in school for eight hours a day. They have many classes, but not a lot of free time. According to the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists, 40% of schools have removed or are considering removing recess. Removing a well needed break for children is problematic. Stewart Trost, a kinesiologist, believes kids who have recess have improvements in staying on task, are less fidgety in the classroom, and are more well behaved (3). Participating in sports have the same beneficial effects. Physical exercise raises those needed dopamine levels and clears the mind to improve students’ social skills and focus in the classroom (2, 5). There are many more ways the United States’ school system could be improved. ADDitude, a magazine devoted to understanding and triumphing over ADHD, provides solutions. Teachers should be trained in recognizing ADHD symptoms instead of considering it as unruly behavior. Class lessons could be more interactive which decrease the amount of time required for students to sit quietly at a desk. Recess breaks should be non-negotiable (4). So the next time little Timmy is squirming in his seat, don’t throw pills at the problem, let him be a kid! Exercise and fresh air are far less expensive.

By Carmen Harper, a Master's of Medical Science student at the University of Kentucky

References:

ADDitude Editors. “What Is ADHD? Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adults”. ADDitude. 2019. https://www.additudemag.com/what-is-adhd-symptoms-causes-treatments/

ADDitude Editors. “Exercise and the ADHD Brain: The Neuroscience of Movement”. ADDitude. 2022. https://www.additudemag.com/exercise-and-the-adhd-brain/

Silver, Larry. “No Recess for Recess”. ADDitude. 2017. https://www.additudemag.com/benefits-of-recess-for-adhd/

ADDitude Editors. “10 Ways We Would Fix the U.S. School System”. ADDitude. 2021. https://www.additudemag.com/slideshows/how-can-we-improve-education-for-students-with-adhd

Stewart, Kristen. “How Exercise Works Like A Drug for ADHD”. Everyday Health. 2013. https://www.everydayhealth.com/add-adhd/can-you-exercise-away-adhd-symptoms.aspx

Cochrane, Zara. “ADHD Medications List”. Healthline. 2023. https://www.healthline.com/health/adhd/medication-list

Kritz, Fran. “The Adderall Shortage: Why It’s Still Happening and What to Do if You Can’t Get Your Meds”. Everyday Health. 2023. https://www.everydayhealth.com/adhd/the-adderall-shortage-why-its-still-happening-and-what-to-do/

 

To Live or to Die by BMI Anti-Black Racism and the Black Community’s Struggle with Obesity

 Let’s Have an Uncomfortable Conversation

There is no debate that obesity is a serious condition that disproportionately impacts the Black community in America. In 2018, Black Americans were found to be 1.3 times more likely to experience obesity and 20 percent less likely to participate in consistent exercise compared to white people.¹ Black women are 50 percent more likely to experience obesity compared to their white counterparts. However, the tools we use to classify obesity are a little out of date.

What is BMI?

Body Mass Index is the measurement of weight (kg) divided by the square of height (m).² BMI is a tool that is used to detect possible risks associated with high body fat and to categorize patients by weight. BMI is used by life insurance companies, electronic health records, and healthcare providers to quantify disease risk.³

Let’s Take a Closer Look at the Origins of BMI

Adolphe Quetelet was a mathematician from Belgium who became very interested in using statistics to define the “average man,” an idealized concept of physicality.⁴ Quetelet found that using a ratio of weight and squared height was the best way to quantify body size and growth. This number was named the Quetelet Index in 1832. Weight tables came into the picture as a result of observations by life insurance companies in the early 20th century. Louis Dublin, vice president of Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, noticed an increase in deaths of policyholders who were obese. He collected data on the matter and found that people of the same height and sex exhibited a vast range of weights. To account for this, he took that range of weights and divided them into small, medium, and large. Insurance companies then decided what weight category was “desirable” and used this number to inform their policies and payouts. The topic of obesity was of growing concern, and by the time of World War II, medical professionals needed a reliable index of weight for clinical and epidemiological studies. In 1972, Ancel Keys, an American physiologist, performed a study that compared the different weight indexes available to clinicians and decided that the Quetelet Index was the most accurate. He then renamed that index to the Body Mass Index, and this ratio was then adopted by medicine.

One of the main criticisms of the Body Mass Index at the time was its ability to be generalized to other populations.⁴ Studies on BMI relied on data from white populations, therefore it did not account for any physical differences in frame and weight distribution for other ethnic groups.

This shortcoming has several serious implications, especially for Black Americans.^3,4

 BMI, Eugenics, and Racism

Discrimination against Black people for their body size originated during chattel slavery when Europeans “observed” enslaved Africans and presumed that they were more sensuous and that they ate too much.⁵ Sabrina Strings, author of Fearing the Black Body: The Racial Origins of Fat Phobia, is an expert on the topic of obesity science and anti-Blackness. In an interview with NPR, Dr. Strings discusses how slave owners differentiated between the enslaved and the free.
After centuries of slavery, it became difficult to tell who was enslaved just by their skin tone, so “they decided to articulate new aspects of racial identity.” Dr. Strings elaborates that appetite and size were two key indicators of a person undeserving of freedom.

 BMI and racism were brought together by Francis Galton, known as the Father of Eugenics.⁶ Galton used the Quetelet Index as the basis for his theories about eugenicist breeding practices - he was concerned with turning Quetelet’s “average man” into an extraordinary one, and this vision did not include people of color or obese bodies.

 Charles Davenport came shortly after Galton and was convinced that there was some racial component to obesity.^6,7 His research conflated a “healthy” body with an attractive body, thus promoting the concept that Black people are “unhealthy” and therefore undesirable. A key component of eugenics is associating physicality with moral value, demoralizing bodies that do not fit within the established aesthetic.

From Strings, S. (2023a, July 1)7

BMI is not a one-size-fits-all solution

The problem with BMI lies within its ability to serve as a “catchall proxy for body fat, nutritional status, and health risk.”8 Relying too much on BMI may unfairly inform diagnoses and exacerbate pre-existing stigma and distrust between Black Americans and the medical community.
 
Given how deeply ingrained BMI is within our healthcare system, it might not be realistic to just do away with it altogether, but adjusting the cut points for ethnicity and educating providers on diagnosing and treating obesity in the Black community is a good start. Dr. Fatima Stanford, an obesity medicine physician-scientist at Harvard Medical School, proposed new BMI cut points that are adjusted for both ethnicity and gender.⁹ These new BMI thresholds are a better predictor of future morbidity and mortality associated with obesity because they are “based on association with metabolic disease” relative to each subgroup, allowing for a more personalized assessment of risk.

 

Obesity in the Black community is a sensitive, nuanced topic that requires special attention from healthcare providers to ensure that Black patients are being treated holistically. BMI may be a useful tool for assessing populations and providing a metric that predicts health risks and disease, but we must all be careful to only see BMI as a part of the picture.

 

By Alexis Jackson, A Master’s of Medical Science student at the University of Kentucky

Sources

1.     Department of Health and Human Services. (2022). Obesity and African Americans. Office of Minority Health. https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/obesity-and-african-americans

2.     Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, June 3). About adult BMI. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/adult_bmi/index.html

3.     Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, June 3). About adult BMI. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/adult_bmi/index.html\

4.     Eknoyan, G. (2007). Adolphe Quetelet (1796 1874) the average man and indices of obesity. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 23(1), 47–51. https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfm517

5.     NPR. (2020, July 21). Fat phobia and its racist past and present. NPR. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/893006538

6.     Farber, S. A. (2008). U.S. Scientists' Role in the Eugenics Movement (1907–1939): A Contemporary Biologist's Perspective. Zebrafish, 5(4), 243-245. https://doi.org/10.1089/zeb.2008.0576

7.     Strings, S. (2023a, July 1). How the use of BMI fetishizes white embodiment and racializes fat phobia. Journal of Ethics | American Medical Association. https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/how-use-bmi-fetishizes-white-embodiment-an d-racializes-fat-phobia/2023-07

8.     Stern, C. (2021, May 8). Why BMI is a flawed health standard, especially for people of color. The Washington Post.https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/wellness/healthy-bmi-obesity-race-/2021/05/0 4/655390f0-ad0d-11eb-acd3-24b44a57093a_story.html

9.     Race, ethnicity, sex, and obesity: Is it time to personalize the scale? (n.d.). https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(18)30807-3/pdf